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=History of Psychotherapy=

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a general classification of psychotherapy, and several approaches to CBT fall within this classification, including Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, Cognitive Therapy, Rational Behavior Therapy, Rational Living Therapy, Schema Focused Therapy, and Dialectical Behavior Therapy (NACBT, 2008). CBT differs from psychodynamic theory by focusing on how a client handles things vs. getting to the root of the problem. Albert Ellis is known for having brought attention to CBT therapy in the 1950’s. Joseph Wolpe and Alfred Addler also contributed to CBT therapy (NACBT,2008)

Psychodynamic therapy: A type of psychotherapy that draws on psychoanalytic theory to help people understand the roots of emotional distress, often by exploring unconscious motives, needs, and defenses(Med Term, 2011). Freud is considered to be the father of psychodynamic therapy he actually used psychoanalytic therapy most of the work in psychodynamic therapy has a basis in Freud’s concepts. It is noted in about 1911 both Carl Jung and Alfred Addler both started straying away from Freud’s analytical style and started using the psychodynamic technique which is also done over a shorter period of time(Haggerty, 2006).

Family therapy focuses on the family unit when implementing treatment. This differs greatly from group therapy where you have a group of 6-12 strangers sharing a similar experience. Murray Bowen is credited with the first use of family therapy just before the Second World War (NWE). Satire is also credited as being the mother of Family therapy because she has contributed so much to the family therapy module she dedicated 45 years to this field (Satir, 1998).

Group psychotherapy is defined as the treatment of a mental illness through the modality of a group setting, the focal point being the interpersonal (social), intrapersonal (psychological), or behavioral change of the participating clients or group members. (Norcross, 2011). This form of therapy has been used for centuries but “Group Psychotherapy” was coined by Jacob Moreno in the 1930’s (Moreno, 1966). As the second World War dawned and after group therapy became more popular with integration of Gestalt therapy. Group therapy is still being used for treatment of patients around the world. Interpersonal Therapy focuses on the relationships of peers and family members and is also short term (Med Term, 2011). Rogerian therapy (a type of interpersonal therapy) due to the immense works of Carl Rogers in the 1940’s where the therapist gives the patient an empathetic and caring surrounding to talk about difficulties in their lives. During this same time Fritz and Laura Pearl did a lot of work on Gestalt therapy which challenges the client about their thoughts on why something occurred in their life. (Haggerty, 2006).

= **Important Contributors to the Field of Psychotherapy** =

"//The organism has one basic tendency and striving - to actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing organism//” (Rogers, 1951)
 * [|Carl Rogers]

Rogers has been touted as being one of, if not the most influential figure in Psychotherapy (Cook et al., 2009). He founded the Humanistic approach of therapy, and is considered to be the founder of the discipline, psychotherapy. Rogers believed all humans strive to reach self-actualization, to full-fill one’s potential and reach the highest level of ‘human-beingness’ (Mcleod, 2007). He believed people are inherently good but are corrupted by a poor self-concept and social constraints which cause anxiety associated with a failure to reach this self-actualizing (Mcleod, 2007). Self actualization truly occurs when a person’s behaviors match with their ideal self (Mcleod, 2007).

Rogers is credited with creating client-centered therapy in the 1940s, believing the client knows the problem, the ideal, and the solution if allowed to explore the subjective reality in a positive atmosphere. Here the therapist serves as an interpreter, and must identify the client’s subjective reality before they can help to mend the problem (Hergenhahn, 2008). A therapist must be empathetic and have only positive views of the client. Only then can the client grow and overcome the problems that plague and sent him to therapy in the first place.

Through unconditional-positive regard a client can become whole and truly understand who they are, without the problems that plague them. Unconditional positive regard occurs when the significant others in an individual’s life fully accept and love the individual. They do not put pressures to conform and the positive regard is never taken away (Mcleod, 2007). It was with these notions Rogers made his mark on the therapy community and is still remembered today as one of the most influential figures in psychotherapy.

Aaron Beck (along with Albert Ellis) is considered the founder of cognitive psychotherapy (Aaron, 2011). He is arguably the most well known psychotherapist today. He is an American psychiatrist who is credited with pioneering cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) (Smith, 2011). Though founded nearly half a century ago, CBT is still one of the most funded and most popular forms of therapy today (Smith, 2011). Beck believed mental dysfunction is driven by unrealistic, habitual, self-defeating thoughts (Smith, 2011). These thoughts alter individual’s perceptions and through that the reactions to the world. Using CBT, Beck treats clients by identifying dysfunctional thoughts and then questions these to find the underlying beliefs (Smith, 2011). This therapy is very rapid and once the core beliefs are uncovered the client, much of the time, s/he will feel better and the anxiety associated with the beliefs dissipates.
 * [|Aaron Beck]

Joseph Wolpe was born in south Africa and lived there until he immigrated to the United States with his wife and children in 1960 (Joseph, 2008). While in Africa he began using desensitization methods to help soldiers from World War II with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) when drug therapy proved ineffective (Joseph, 2008). This was the beginning of his work in cognitive-behavior therapy.
 * __[|Joseph Wolpe]__

Wolpe pioneered what is now known as desensitization (Milite, 2001). His techniques taught people to “unlearn” certain problem behaviors (such as a fear of rejection or flashbacks of war) and to learn new behaviors (such as confronting fears and relaxation) (Joseph, 2008). He used gradual steps to help people PTSD, phobias, and other fears. He became best known for these desensitization techniques, as well as assertiveness training. Wolpe argued that because most of our behaviors are learned, then they could be unlearned (Milite, 2001). Assertiveness training used similar methodology. Individuals who seek assertiveness training can be desensitized in the same way those with phobias do because they fear interactions with others, public speaking, anger from others, etc. These fears all inhibit interactions with other people (Milite, 2001). Wolpe worked and taught until one month before his death at the age of 97 (Milite, 2001).

Known as the mother of family therapy, Virginia Satir made family therapy an alternative to existing therapies of the day (Banmen, 2010). Despite her own problem within her family (both as a child and in her failed marriage), Satir blossomed in her professional life, becoming a teacher and principal before the age of 20 (Banmen, 2010).
 * [|Virginia Satir]

In 1951 she began a therapy career and developed techniques based on the individual needs of her clients (Banmen, 2010). Her family therapy techniques were based on her belief that all people have internal devices that can assist them in making their lives more functional, successful, and healthy (Banmen, 2010). Her therapy focused on the therapist as a source of change for the client than any particular technique. She empowered her clients within a family setting by teaching communication and coping skills (Banmen, 2010).

Albert Ellis is widely considered one of the founders of cognitive psychology. He (along with Beck) used of form of therapy known as talk therapy. This was the dominant treatment in Freud’s therapy as well. The patient is encouraged to talk freely on whatever s/he is thinking at any moment in time (Kaufman, 2007). However, Ellis believed that therapy should not delve into the extensive past as in Freud’s therapy. In his therapy, known as Rational Emotive Psychotherapy, he used a much faster and more deliberate strategy than Freud or others before him. His therapy focused on immediate problems of the client instead of delving into the past and childhood in timely and costly therapy (Kaufman, 2007). Most easily put Ellis used a “stop-complaining-and-get-on-with-your-life therapy” (Kaufman, 2007).
 * [|Albert Ellis]

Ellis believed people are born with a penitent for bad perception that sabotages an attempt at happiness. If any change is to be made, the therapist must intervene in this distorted thinking directly (Kaufman, 2007). Ellis believed the therapist must take an active role, intervening in the dysfunctional thinking that caused the problem behaviors (Kaufman, 2007). He is also considered one of the founders of cognitive psychology.

__*[|Sigmund Freud]__ Sigmund Freud is one of the most well known psychologists. He is famous for his theories and techniques in psychotherapy. Though today his theories and ideas are still widely and fiercely debated, few can deny he more than any other psychologist, has shaped the mind of 20th century psychology (Gay, 1999). His theories came from the central idea that all humans have an unconscious that houses sexual and aggressive drives. These desires are pushed into the subconscious by human defenses against the conflict these drives cause (Gay, 1999). Freud was also very interested in dreams and believed that dreams were the pathway to the unconscious. Dreams exposed individual’s unconscious desires and fears. He began recording his own dreams as a child, and in his adulthood, he studied them extensively (Gay, 1999).

Freud faced many problems while working on his theory. He had an addiction to cocaine, and lost family in the Holocaust of World War I (Gay, 1999). Because of his extensive work on sexuality many of those who opposed his theories went as far as to call him a pervert and admonished his work (Gay, 1999). Despite his personal woes and harsh criticisms Freud remains one of the most known and most influential figure in psychology.

The image of Multitheoretical or dynamic Psychotherapy shows how therapy must work through the contexts of the larger society before being able to focus on the inner person (Brooks-Harris, 2007).

Murry Bowen was born on January 31, 1913, In Waverly, Tennessee. His experience as an army surgeon during WWI led to an interest in psychiatry. Bowne later pursued studies at the Menninger Foundation in Topeka, Kansas in 1946. An appointment at the National Institute of Mental Health in Bethesda, Maryland led to a five-year research project which laid the groundwork for his Family Systems Theory. Bowne then became the director of the Family Programs Department of Psychiatry at Georgetown University Medical Center. In 1975 he founded the Georgetown Family Center where he remained until his death 1990 ("Bowen theory,"). Bowen’s Family Systems Theory was a groundbreaking, systems view of human behavior once thought of as a potential replacement of Freudian theory. From a clinical standpoint, his theory is the basis of Marriage and Family Therapy (MFT) (Miller).
 * A Systems View of the Family**

“The family is an emotional unit and any change in the emotional functioning of one member of the family/emotional unit is predictably and automatically compensated for by changes in the emotional functioning of other members of that family/emotional unit.” (Miller)
 * **Eight Principles of Family Systems Theory** ||
 * TRIANGLES ||
 * DIFFERENTIATION OF SELF ||
 * NUCLEAR FAMILY EMOTIONAL PROCESS ||
 * FAMILY PROJECTION PROCESS ||
 * MULTI GENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION PROCESSES ||
 * SIBLING POSITION ||
 * EMOTIONAL CUTOFF ||
 * EMOTIONAL PROCESSES IN SOCIETY (SOCIETAL REGRESSION) ||

Milton H. Erickson became Interested in the mind at an early age while struck with polo("ericksonian.info,"). Born in Nevada in 1901, he realized a mind/body connection of action through day dreams and imagination. In 1933 he founded the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis. His innovations of "Ericksonian hypnosis," and “Ericksonian psychotherapy” have greatly influenced practicing therapists to this day (Gorton, 2005).
 * The Father of Clinical Hypnosis**

(Gorton, 2005)
 * ===Therapeutic Influences === || ===Therapeutic Techniques === || ===Hypnotic Techniques === ||
 * ===One-sessiontherapy === || ===Paradox === || ===Arm levitation === ||
 * ===Brief therapy === || ===Humor === || ===Interspersal === ||
 * ===Strategic family therapy === || ===Reframing === || ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Confusion === ||
 * ===<span style="color: #4a4a4a; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Systems-oriented therapy === || ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Confusion === || ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Illogic and irrelevance === ||
 * ===<span style="color: #4a4a4a; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Solution-focused therapy === || ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Surprise === || ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Indirection === ||
 * ===<span style="color: #4a4a4a; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Ordeal therapy === || ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Binds and double binds === || ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Age regression and progression === ||
 * ===<span style="color: #4a4a4a; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Neurolinguisticprogramming === || ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Metaphors and storytelling === || ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Future projection === ||
 * ===<span style="color: #4a4a4a; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Pediatric and dental hypnoanalgesia === || ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Ambiguous function assignments === || ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Time distortion === ||
 * ===<span style="color: #4a4a4a; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Psychobiological therapy === || ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Going with resistance === || ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Trance induction by touch alone === ||

Often referred to as the guru of the “communication, negotiation, and conflict resolution” school of couple therapy, (Spett, 2004) John Gottman’s 25 years of research into marital therapy is unequalled. ("The gottman relationship,"). Along with his wife, Dr. Julie Schwartz, he co-founded the Gottman Relationship Institute. He has published 190 academic articles and authored or co-authored over 40 books ("Counseling and therapy," 2005).
 * A pioneer in marital stability and divorce prediction**

A trained mathematician, Gottman’s groundbreaking book, The Mathematics of Love, introduced the world to his “nonlinear difference equations for marital interaction”, or Math Modeling. With a 90% success rate he is able to predict the outcome of marital relationships ("John gottman, the," 2011). Gottman’s most influential research occurred when during 14-year study he found that couples who divorce early (prior to 7-10 years) display intense levels of anger along with wife negativity. In contrast, couples divorcing later than 10 years, continue to have similar levels of anger albeit neutral and/or suppressed (Gottman, & Levenson, 2002).

The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work (Spett, 2004)
 * ====<span style="color: #4a4a4a; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Learn each other ==== || ====<span style="color: #4a4a4a; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Know each other ==== || ====<span style="color: #4a4a4a; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Frequent interaction ==== || ====<span style="color: #4a4a4a; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Share power ==== || ====<span style="color: #4a4a4a; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Respectful communication ==== || ====<span style="color: #4a4a4a; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Overcome Gridlock ==== || ====<span style="color: #4a4a4a; font-family: Calibri,serif;">Create Shared Meaning ==== ||

Fritz Perls was born on July 8, 1893, in Berlin. After fleeing a Hitler obsessed Germany, via South Africa, he relocated to New York in 1946. It was here where Perls worked with Karen Homey and Willhelm Reich prior to opening the Gestalt Therapy Institute in 1952 ("Fritz perls,").
 * The Founder of Gestalt Therapy**

Carl Young was born on July 26, 1875 in Kesswil, Switzerland. Following medical training, in 1907, a close professional relationship developed following his introduction to Sigmund Freud. Freud believed Young to be the torch bearer of his psychoanalytical theories and traditions. However, beginning in 1910 Young began to dissalign with Freud’s psycho/sexual views, ultimately severing ties in 1914 by resigning from all academic and professional roles (Liukkonen, 2008).
 * Founder of the school of analytical psychology**

Carl Young would later be associated with the psyco-spiritual and esoteric sciences. His contributions to psychotherapy are without question. He classified personalities as either introvert or extrovert ("Jung's methods in,"). Young believed that therapy must “guide the patient to a personal confrontation with the collective unconscious, with archetypes.” The goal here is to bring together the conscious with the unconscious (Self) through archetypes, to complete the process of individuation extrovert ("Jung's methods in,").

A self taught family therapist, Argentinean born Salvador Minuchin documented the integration of family and troubled youth in the book Families of the Slums. In 1965 he was appointed as the director of the Philadelphia Child Guidance Clinic, the most prestigious child guidance clinic in the world (Nichols). His system of Structured Family Therapy attained wide spread professional acceptance is the 70’s. Not without its detractors, this form of therapy was often criticized by feminist writers who balked at the notion of shared responsibility for violence between perpetrator and victim (Fleming).
 * A Theory for Family Integration**

=Key Findings of Psychotherapy=


 * Psychoanalysis**

When the traditional thought that people were essentially rational, Freud presented the theory that our behavior was predominately biological and influenced by society. Freud also proved the dynamics of family determined the roles of male and female played.

Based on Freud’s concept of the unconscious (whatever we do not need or do not want to see) that you manipulate reality and our memories to protect our ego; which was termed “ego defenses”. Therapy in a physically and socially relaxed environment aids Freud’s idea of “transference” which is important to the success of the therapeutic relationship. Breuer believed that psychological traumas were the cause of neurotic symptoms. Conflicted adults are generally the result of a childhood filled with neglect, abuse and chaos.


 * Behaviorism and Behavioral Therapy**

The behaviorists contributed behavior modification through behavior oriented therapy; this suggested that negative or undesirable conduct was eliminated through the use of positive reinforcement. Behavioral Therapy became significant in the 1960’s with the evaluation of applying previously known psychological principles in an experimental setting. This therapy has been highly successful for interventions in many disorders (Borkovec, 1997). Behavioral therapy is used to change or adjust an unwanted behavior through the use of reinforcement. Therapists use tools and steps to guide the patient to understand how to respond to stimuli in a new way. For example, one therapy utilized systematic desensitization to assist the patient in coping with phobias and other fears: the use of progressive relaxation is used to enable the patient to reduce anxiety towards their fears. (There are different versions within the term Behaviorism, a few of them being methodological, radical, biological, theoretical.)


 * Cognitive Therapy**

Instead of changing an unwanted behavior, Cognitive Therapy focuses on changing the pattern in how our mind thinks when we are performing an undesirable behavior. Brandt defined cognitive psychology as the process of “confronting desires with relevant information by repeatedly representing it, in an ideally vivid way, and at an appropriate time. .. the process relies simply on reflection on available information, without influence by prestige of someone, use of evaluative language, extrinsic reward or punishment, or use of artificially induced feeling-states like relaxation (Daniels, 1983).” Or, in sum, we must weigh our desires with our own values and determine whether or not our behavior is acceptable; these behaviors may then be modified if we can determine they are “acceptable.” (Cognitive behavior is strongly based on and taught with a direction of the “here and now” mindset.)


 * Approaches:**

Beck (1999) believed that ineffective self-defeating behavior is a result of irrational thinking patterns (automatic thoughts). This happens when the patient reacts to their distorted view of a situation. The process is known as cognitive restructuring. Contributions to the therapy were made by Pavlov, Skinner, and Wolpe with principles from classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and assertiveness training.

The therapist identifies the thoughts contributing to anxiety and employs therapy techniques to alter the behavior. The combined approach focuses on core beliefs which have a negative impact on behavior and functioning.

Techniques Validity testing Cognitive rehearsal Guided discovery Writing a journal Homework Modeling Systematic positive reinforcement Aversive conditioning


 * Psychodynamic Approach**

This is one of the many “systems” of psychotherapy. This system is in complete contrast to the above behavioral mentioned therapy. This type of therapy is based on entering inside the mind during therapy and forgetting about the scientific accessories. This helps someone to see how he or she, as a individual, view the world, and thoughts. Psychodynamic is a form a depth psychology. It is meant to “reveal the unconscious content of a clients psyche in order to alleviate psychic tension.” http://www.health.medicbd.com/wiki/Psychodynamic%20psychotherapy

Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalysis was the original “dynamic” theory. There are certain psychodynamic approach assumptions that are theories believed and used in this approach of psychotherapy. Some of them involve believing that all behavior has a cause (importantly unconscious), Things such as our feelings and behaviors as adults are rooted from childhood, our feelings are powerfully effected by “unconscious” motives, and that there are three parts that make up the personality, which are the superego, the ego, and the id. So basically Psychodynamic is takes the approach of actually approaching some of the unconscious portions of the thought process.


 * Group Therapy**

Group Therapy is a form of cognitive therapy; it’s just set in a group setting so that people can feel the support of peers. Joseph H. Pratt, Trigant Burrow and Paul Schilder were the actual founders of psychotherapy in the USA. Although, in 1920, Jacob L. Moreno (?) was the first to actually use the term of “group therapy,” even though the function of group therapy had probably been performed without the recognition of a formal name. Moreno and others furthered the study after World War II. The beginning of group therapy was beginning to be born in the United States under at a time when Pragmatism was a dominant intellectual orientation. Pragmatism, which is basically the linking of practice and theory, and writers who believed in this practice were Charles Piece, William James (1907), and John Dewey(1900), pushed the principle that the measure of truth is comprised of the value of our ideas of self and other. This study that they supported, Pragmatism, supported that identity emerges out of a persons relationships with others. These beliefs support the beneficial study of group psychotherapy. ([])

According to Irvin D. Yalom, who believes that if you organize a principle to approach all the problems of psychotherapy, we can conduct a strategy. He believes the therapeutic experience of group therapy can be divided into eleven primary factors.

1. Instillation of hope 2. Universality 3. Imparting information 4. Altruism 5. The corrective recapitulation of the primary family group 6. Development of socializing techniques. 7. Imitative behavior 8. Interpersonal learning 9. Group cohesiveness 10. Catharsis 11. Existential factors. (Yalom)

Expressive therapy is one of the more uncommon therapies comparatively to cognitive, group, and behavioral, but nonetheless, it remains very important. Expressive therapy uses one’s strengths in arts as a escape from mental unstableness. It can be expressed in any form of art that supplies strength and escape to the specific person. As Shaun McNiff (1980) once said, “action within therapy and life is rarely limited to a specific mode of expression.” (THE ARTS AND PSYCHOTHERAPY). Quite a few therapist discover that this type of therapy helps people quickly communicate current issues in their life in ways that talking cannot. There are many different types of expressive therapy, such as Art therapy, music therapy, dance therapy, drama therapy, poetry therapy, and much more. Art therapy used images and pictures as a therapeutic means of reconciling emotion problems, the development of behavior and social skills, and emotion disputes within the person. Music theory uses the positive effect changes, and Drama therapy is a intentional use of drama processes for therapeutic relief. (AmericanArt TherapyAssociation, 2004). ([])

There forms of therapy always present indirect ways of letting a patient explain their personal situation, without feeling the awkward directness. If a person is artistic, it might be easier to express themselves this way, depending on their choice of expression.

=Key Objections of Psychotherapy=

According to Bruce Bower (2003), cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy, over a three month period, is most effective if both the therapist and patient establish a strong emotional bond while working towards similar goals. However, this emotional connection usually does not form until progression in the patient is made. Many studies have been done and as a whole- many patients benefit greatly from psychotherapy (Bower, 2003).


 * Freud & Sexuality**

Sigmund Freud stated that our so-called "normal behaviors" can be explained through our sexual desires. In this theory our mind can be divided into three parts; the Id, ego, and superego. The id explains our impulses and disregards for consequences, the super ego deals with morals, while the ego tries to maintain balance. “Freud described two currents of emotional life in all of us: an affectionate current, including our bonds with the important people in our lives, and a sensual current, including our wish to gratify sexual impulses” (Hoffman, 2005). As Freud presented the theory of our unconscious mind and how it is influenced by the environment and biology, there were some objections however to if this theory was plausible:

1. Over emphasis on how behavior is determined through sexuality during the first few years of life

2. Other factors of the environment also play a role in behavior

As many researchers and psychologists have accepted the theory of our unconscious mind explained in terms of sexual needs and fantasies, there is also a line that has been reached. Researchers object to the fact that our sexuality is explained by this predisposed nature. Many believed he was misinterpreting our sexual inhibitions as a way to get us to misbehave socially. From as early as the late 1800’s until the 1950’s, sexual activity among teenagers was rarely discussed and looked down upon; celibacy was the only right way. People believe that Freud was uncovering a chapter that didn’t need to be read, when in fact it did all make sense. The way these fantasies are contrasted with our individual needs shows that we need to learn how to balance the norms of life and sexuality; and how the unconscious mind plays a large role in this.

Besides trying to discover our sexual wishes there are other factors that contribute to how behavior can be explained, says objectors. Media, family, school and the everyday expectations are some environmental components of life that can affect how we adjust and act. Sexuality is not the only key to explain our behavior.


 * Behavioral Therapy**

An objection of this type of therapy is that empirical evidence does not prove long-lasting and effective. Some believe that behavioral therapy will not produce a change, when in fact there is years of study and proof that in fact it does work. Since the decline of behaviorism, it has lost its strength. Researchers believe it is not a true way to study the behavior of animals and humans and that neuroscience is the only correct method to report studying of the mind.” Neuroscience describes inside-the-box mechanisms that permit today's reinforcing stimulus to affect tomorrow's behavior” (Graham, 2000).

Another obstacle to behavioral therapy is attempting to incorporate all the aspects of psychological knowledge into the development of a behavioral theory. All the relevant research to one particular theory may seem intimidating to researchers. The communication between psychologists is a dire necessity – which is very difficult to accomplish (Blaine & Onken, 1997).


 * Cognitive Therapy**

Objections to this theory concern that medicine is not always capable of changing a patient’s behavior and that the formal assessment in diagnosing isn’t always the right way to go. In this type of therapy the focus is not to diagnose the patient, but instead find a treatment plan that help’s the client needs in therapy.

Areas covered in assessment (Sanders, 2005): 1. Problem-focused information 2. Broader background information (Historical/Longitudinal) 3. Interpersonal Information 4. Environmental information, the person’s circumstances

Brandt, one of the main philosophers who believed firmly in Cognitive Therapy argued that one major setback of this type of therapy is that it would not extinguish mistaken desires acquired in childhood. He also believed it was hard for people to completely shut out other’s opinions and rely solely on our own (Daniels, 1983). In today’s media-dominated society this still remains a relevant argument. Brandt further quotes, “We cannot resort to psychotherapy, by an expert, nor to drugs, nor to behavior modification techniques involving reward or punishment. All we may do is vividly and repeatedly represent the relevant truths to ourselves (Daniels, 1983).

=Videos of Psychotherapy Sessions=

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 * Carl Rogers and Gloria Counseling Part 1 of 5**

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 * Biography of Sigmund Freud Part 1 of 5**

=References=

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